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Review Article
Demographic Modulators of Cardiometabolic Risk: A Comprehensive Review of Lipid, Glycemic, and Inflammatory Biomarkers
Mohammad Rehan1
Rekha Sirohi2
Zeeshan Ali3
Umesh Kumar4
1 3 PhD Scholar, Department of Biochemistry, Sir Syad Faculty of Sciences, Mohammad Ali Jauhar University, Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, India. 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Sir Syad Faculty of Sciences, Mohammad Ali Jauhar University, Rampur, Uttar Pradesh, India. 4 Associate Professor, College of allied Health Care Swami Vivekanand Subharti University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Published Online: November-December 2025
Pages: 71-78
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/ijrtmr.20250506008References
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46. Ridker PM. From C-reactive protein to interleukin-6 to interleukin-1: moving upstream to identify novel targets for atheroprotection. Circ Res. 2016;118(1):145-156.
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61. Geer EB, Shen W. Gender differences in insulin resistance, body composition, and energy balance. Gend Med. 2009;6 Suppl 1:60-75.
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2. Pan American Health Organization. Noncommunicable Diseases. Washington, DC: PAHO; 2025.
3. World Health Organization. Global Health Estimates 2021: Deaths by cause, age, sex, by country and by region, 2000-2021. Geneva: WHO; 2023.
4. Ajoolabady A, Praber D, Bhatt A, et al. Inflammation in atherosclerosis: pathophysiology and mechanisms. Cell Death Dis. 2024;15:817.
5. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Diagnosis & Tests. Arlington, VA: ADA; 2024.
6. Banach M, Burchardt P, Chlebus K, et al. 2023: the year in cardiovascular disease—the year of new and prospective lipid-lowering therapies. Arch Med Sci. 2023;19(6):1429-1439.
7. Cavagnolli G, Pimentel AL, Freitas PAC, Gross JL, Camargo JL. Effect of ethnicity on HbA1c levels in individuals without diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(2):e0171315.
8. Davidson MB, Schriger DL. Effect of age and race/ethnicity on HbA1c levels in people without known diabetes mellitus: implications for the diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87(3):415-21.
9. Rosengren A, Smyth A, Rangarajan S, et al. Socioeconomic status and risk of cardiovascular disease in 20 low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries: the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2019;7(6):e748-e760.
10. Davari M, Maracy MR, Khorasani E. Socioeconomic status, cardiac risk factors, and cardiovascular disease: a novel approach to determine the relative contribution of socioeconomic status to cardiovascular outcomes. ARYA Atheroscler. 2019;15(6):260-267.
11. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. High Blood Cholesterol. Bethesda, MD: NIH; 2024.
12. Ference BA, Ginsberg HN, Graham I, et al. Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur Heart J. 2017;38(32):2459-2472.
13. Pedro-Botet J, Pintó X. LDL cholesterol as a causal agent of atherosclerosis. Clin Investig Arterioscler. 2025;37(2):100051.
14. Maiolino G, Rossitto G, Caielli P, Bisogni V, Rossi GP, Calò LA. The role of oxidized low-density lipoproteins in atherosclerosis: the myths and the facts. Mediators Inflamm. 2013;2013:714653.
15. StatPearls. Atherosclerosis. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
16. Mann S, Beedie C, Jimenez A. Differential effects of aerobic exercise, resistance training and combined exercise modalities on cholesterol and the lipid profile: review, synthesis and recommendations. Sports Med. 2014;44(2):211-21.
17. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of LDL-lowering therapy among men and women: meta-analysis of individual data from 174,000 participants in 27 randomised trials. Lancet. 2015;385(9976):1397-1405.
18. Ryczkowska K, Adach W, Janikowski K, Banach M, Bielecka-Dabrowa A. Menopause and women's cardiovascular health: is it really an obvious relationship? Arch Med Sci. 2023;19(2):458-466.
19. Wang X, Magkos F, Mittendorfer B. Sex differences in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism: it's not just about sex hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(4):885-893.
20. Ouimet M, Barrett TJ, Fisher EA. HDL and reverse cholesterol transport: basic mechanisms and their roles in vascular health and disease. Circ Res. 2019;124(10):1505-1518.
21. Madaudo C, Ferrante G, Ferraro G, Ferraro F, Novo G. Dysfunctional high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and coronary artery disease: a narrative review. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2024;11(9):294.
22. Sacher S, Leitinger N. Deciphering structural aspects of reverse cholesterol transport. Biol Rev. 2023;98(5):1831-1853.
23. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Major lipids, apolipoproteins, and risk of vascular disease. JAMA. 2009;302(18):1993-2000.
24. Gordon DJ, Probstfield JL, Garrison RJ, et al. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease. Four prospective American studies. Circulation. 1989;79(1):8-15.
25. Kosmas CE, Bousvarou MD, Kostara CE, Papakonstantinou EJ, Dimou E, Adamopoulos EG. The triglyceride/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (TG/HDL-C) ratio as a risk marker for metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Diagnostics. 2023;13(5):929.
26. Chaudhari A, Sharma R, Patel S. Lipid profile abnormalities in metabolic syndrome patients: a comparative cross-sectional study. Healthcare Bull. 2025;7(2):45-53.
27. Prabhu GS, Devang N, Kamath A. Triglycerides and metabolic syndrome: from basic to clinical understanding. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2025;176:106892.
28. Smith GI, Shankaran M, Yoshino M, et al. Insulin resistance drives hepatic de novo lipogenesis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(3):1453-1460.
29. Xu D, Hu Y, Liu W, Zhang W, Li J. Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and cardiovascular diseases. Front Endocrinol. 2024;15:1409653.
30. Do R, Willer CJ, Schmidt EM, et al. Common variants associated with plasma triglycerides and risk for coronary artery disease. Nat Genet. 2013;45(11):1345-1352.
31. Després JP, Lemieux I, Bergeron J, et al. Abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome: contribution to global cardiometabolic risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28(6):1039-1049.
32. Liu M, Wadhera RK, Yeh RW, et al. Cardiovascular health among rural and urban US adults—national health interview survey, 2022. JAMA Cardiol. 2025;10(5):433-441.
33. Riha J, Karabarinde A, Ssenyomo G, et al. Urbanicity and lifestyle risk factors for cardiometabolic diseases in rural Uganda: a cross-sectional study. PLoS Med. 2014;11(7):e1001683.
34. Goyal R, Jialal I. Type 2 Diabetes. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2023.
35. Endotext. Diagnostic Tests for Diabetes Mellitus. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com, Inc.; 2025.
36. American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Supplement_1):S20-S42.
37. Diabetes Canada Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee. Definition, classification and diagnosis of diabetes, prediabetes and metabolic syndrome. Can J Diabetes. 2018;42(Suppl 1):S10-S15.
38. Pemberton JS, Sherwin-Martin H, Sherwood-Stevens J, Sheridan-Martin E. Ethnic disparities in HbA1c and hypoglycemia among children and young people with type 1 diabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2025;13(1):e004369.
39. Rao SS, Disraeli P, McGregor T. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose. Am Fam Physician. 2004;69(8):1961-1968.
40. Cleveland Clinic. Metabolic Syndrome. Cleveland, OH: Cleveland Clinic; 2025.
41. Kawai T, Autieri MV, Bhattacharyya S. Adipose tissue inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2021;320(3):C375-C391.
42. Bonora E, Kiechl S, Willeit J, et al. The metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Ann Med. 2006;38(1):64-80.
43. Amezcua-Castillo E, González-Pacheco H, Sáenz-San Martín A, et al. C-reactive protein: the quintessential marker of systemic inflammation in coronary artery disease. Biomedicines. 2023;11(9):2444.
44. Ellulu MS, Patimah I, Khaza'ai H, Rahmat A, Abed Y. Obesity and inflammation: the linking mechanism and the complications. Arch Med Sci. 2017;13(4):851-863.
45. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: to measure or not? US Cardiol Rev. 2024;18:e21.
46. Ridker PM. From C-reactive protein to interleukin-6 to interleukin-1: moving upstream to identify novel targets for atheroprotection. Circ Res. 2016;118(1):145-156.
47. American College of Cardiology. ACCEL Lite: C-reactive protein and CV risk in the general population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2025;85(10):e21.
48. Visser M, Bouter LM, McQuillan GM, Wener MH, Harris TB. Elevated C-reactive protein levels in overweight and obese adults. JAMA. 1999;282(22):2131-2135.
49. Cani PD, Amar J, Iglesias MA, et al. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2007;56(7):1761-1772.
50. Trayhurn P, Wood IS. Adipokines: inflammation and the pleiotropic role of white adipose tissue. Br J Nutr. 2004;92(3):347-355.
51. Lakoski SG, Cushman M, Criqui M, et al. Gender and C-reactive protein: data from the Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort. Am Heart J. 2006;152(3):593-598.
52. Ridker PM, Buring JE, Shih J, Matias M, Hennekens CH. Prospective study of C-reactive protein and the risk of future cardiovascular events among apparently healthy women. Circulation. 1998;98(8):731-733.
53. Srikanthan K, Feyh A, Visweshwar H, Shapiro JI, Sodhi K. Systematic review of metabolic syndrome biomarkers: a panel for early detection, management, and risk stratification in the West Virginian population. Int J Med Sci. 2016;13(1):25-38.
54. Morgado F, Martins D, Neves D. Laboratory markers of metabolic syndrome. Explor Endocr Metab Dis. 2024;1(3):76-89.
55. Aguilar M, Bhuket T, Torres S, Liu B, Wong RJ. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in the United States, 2003-2012. JAMA. 2015;313(19):1973-1974.
56. Chen R, Zhan Y, Pedersen NL, Hägg S. Biomarkers of ageing: current state-of-art, challenges, and opportunities. MedComm. 2023;4(4):e50.
57. Pérez-López FR, Larrad-Mur L, Kallen A, Chedraui P, Taylor HS. Gender differences in cardiovascular disease: hormonal and biochemical influences. Reprod Sci. 2010;17(6):511-531.
58. Pérez-López FR, Chedraui P, Gilbert JJ, Pérez-Roncero G. Cardiovascular risk in menopausal women and prevalent related co-morbid conditions: facing the post-Women's Health Initiative era. Fertil Steril. 2009;92(4):1171-1186.
59. Matthews KA, Crawford SL, Chae CU, et al. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(25):2366-2373.
60. Noah MLN, Adu-Amankwaah J, Owusu Boateng E, et al. Sex–gender disparities in cardiovascular diseases: the effects of estrogen on eNOS, lipid profile, and NFATs during catecholamine stress. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2021;8:639946.
61. Geer EB, Shen W. Gender differences in insulin resistance, body composition, and energy balance. Gend Med. 2009;6 Suppl 1:60-75.
62. Das M, Pal S, Ghosh A. Rural urban differences of cardiovascular disease risk factors in adult Asian Indians. Am J Hum Biol. 2008;20(4):440-445.
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